Contents
Arranagement of Sections
Arranagement of Sections
CHAPTER 1
The Nature and Scope of Injunctive Relief
Introduction 3
Temporary and Perpetual Injunctions 4
Contrac
ual Obligations and Perpetual Injunctions 4
Mandatory and Prohibitory Injunctions 6
Considerations for Granting Mandatory Injunctions 6
Quia Timet Injunctions 8
Mareva Injunctions 9
Statu
ory Limitations on the Granting of Injunctions 11
Grant of Temporary Injunctions-Order XXXIX, Rules 1 and 2 13
Prima Facie Case 14
Balance of Convenience and Irreparable Hardship 15
Conduct o
the Parties 16
Grant of Ex Parte Injunctions 16
Vital Safeguards for Granting of Ex Parte Injunctions 17
Ex Parte Injunctions and the Right to Appeal 18
Letters Patent and Ex Parte Injunctio
s 20
Enforcement of an Order of Injunction 21
Injunctive Relief in the United Kingdom 22
The Basic Approach 22
Assessment of Monetary Loss-Damages and Other Losses 25
Balance of Convenien
e 25
Merits of a Case 25
Cautious Approach Required 28
Mini-trial to be Avoided at the Interim Stage 28
Merits Significant where Interim Injunction Renders Trial without Purpose 28
The Ca
ne Principle 29
American Cyanamid Distinguished 30
The Cayne Principle and Intellectual Property Rights 30
American Cyanamid & Cayne-Apparent Conflict Reconciled 31
Ability of the Parties to
ay Damages 31
The Effect of Delay 32
Refusal of Injunction Due to Delay 32
Delay not an Absolute Bar 33
Delay Stemming from Desire to Avoid Litigation 33
Defendant not to Take Advantage o
his Wrongdoing 33
Eyes Open Action of the Defendant 35
The Status Quo Factor 35
Status Quo-The Relevant Period of Enquiry 36
Form of Interim Injunctions 37
Injunctive Relief in the Unite
States 37
Introduction 37
The Legal Effect of a Preliminary Injunction 37
The Standard of Proof 38
Five Basic Criteria for Granting of Preliminary Injunction 38
Different Tests Propounde
by Various Circuit Courts 39
Applicability of a Higher Standard 40
The Sliding Scale Approach 41
A Variant of the Second Circuit Approach? 42
American Cyanamid-Applicability in the Indian Co
text 42
Anton Piller Orders 44
Injunctive Relief in IPR Infringements 44
Trade Marks 45
Copyright 46
Patents 47
Designs 47
Geographical Indications 48
Common Law Rights 49
CHAPTER 2
Infringement of Trade Marks and Injunctive Relief
Introduction 55
‘Mark’ Defined55
Rectification and Infringement-Separate Remedies 55
Passing Off and Infringement 56
Se
arate Remedies 56
No Suit for Infringement against a Registered Owner 57
¬Onus of Proof and Evidentiary Burden 58
Protection for Non-Distinctive Parts of a Mark 60
Vital Factors in Assessing
assing Off 61
The Role of Goodwill in Establishing Passing Off 63
Improper Use of the Plaintiff’s Mark in Passing Off 64
Class of Goods or Services and Trade Mark Infringement 66
Effect of Cl
ss Registration on Goods Outside the Class 67
Contrary View in Certain Decisions 68
Class of Goods and Passing Off Action 69
Acts Amounting to Infringement 71
‘Use in the Course of Trade’ of
he Mark 71
Comparative Advertising and Trade Mark Parodies 72
Adwords and Use of Trade Marks by Search Engines and Bidding Competitors76
The Decision of the Madras High Court in Consim 77
The
Correct Analysis of the Adwords Issue 77
Adwords-View of the American Courts 79
Similar Goods or Services 80
Corporate Names and Infringement 81
Parallel Importation and Trade Mark Infringeme
t 83
Trade Mark Dilution 86
Well-known Marks 87
‘Reputation in India’ and Well-known Marks: Possible Connection? 89
Judicial Pronouncements on Trade Marks Dilution 90
Strict Views on Trad
Marks Dilution 90
Liberal Views on Trade marks Dilution 93
Deceptive Similarity 95
Deceptive Similarity-Position in the United Kingdom 95
Similarity of Marks 96
The Average Consumer 97 <
r>Ultimate Purchasers to be Considered 97
Other Material Aspects 98
Manner of Marketing 99
Nature of the Product 100
Monopolistic Presence 100
Sophisticated Customers 101
A Purchase M
de With Care 101
Direct Purchase by the Customer 102
Wider Application of the Mark 102
Pharmaceutical Products102
The Public Interest Dimension 103
The International Character of Medical
roducts 103
The Manner of Sale 104
Nature of the Formulation 104
Prescription Drugs 105
Legal Restrictions on Sale 106
Legal Restrictions 106
Mental Impression of the Marks 107
Pr
ma Facie Degree of Resemblance 107
Essential Particulars of the Mark 107
Need to Avoid Conferring Wide Monopoly 108
Application of Prefixes/Suffixes 109
Distinctive Character of the Marks 110
Disclaimers 111
Application to a Series of Related Marks 112
Idea of the Mark-The First Syllable 112
Idea of the Mark-Aural Similarity 113
Product Relatedness 114
Actual Confusion 117
Evidence of Actual Confusion not Confined to Sale Confusion 118
Absence of Actual Confusion Material in Certain Situations 118
View of the Privy Council 118
Actual Confusion-Factors Assuming
ignificance 119
Advertising Strategy 119
Effect of Market Surveys 120
Market Surveys-Important Propositions 121
Possible Pitfalls when conducting Market Surveys 121
Tachistoscope or T-Sco
e Test 123
The Goodwill Element 123
Likelihood of Confusion Analysis in the United States 124
Approach by Different Circuit Courts 125
The Similarity of Marks 126
Overall Impression of th
Marks 126
Effect of Dissimilarity 127
Recent Second Comer 128
Aural Similarity & Effect of Mispronunciation 128
Non-visual Markets and Aural Similarity 129
Similarity in Meaning 130
icture Marks versus Word Marks 131
Foreign Words versus English Words 132
Visual Similarity 134
Visual Similarity between Word Marks 135
Acronyms as Word Marks 135
Combination of Source I
dicators 136
Family Marks 137
The Dominant Portion in Composite Marks 138
Similarity of Goods and Services 138
Key Factors in Assessing the Similarity of Goods / Services 139
Bridging the
Gap 142
Trade Channels 143
Advertising Practices 144
Class of Consumers and the Possibility of Confusion 145
The Sophisticated Consumer 146
Class of Purchasers on the Internet 147
Doc
rine of Greater Care 148
The Defendant’s Intent 149
Strength of the Plaintiff’s Mark 150
Acquired Strength-Influencing Factors and Proof 151
Effect of Third-party Marks/Use 152
Actual Con
usion 154
Deceptive Similarity in India-Relevant Factors for Assessment 155
Amritdhara and the Triple Test 155
Essential Features of the Marks 156
The Similarities – Dissimilarities Debate 15
India and the U.K.-Difference in Approach 157
Strength of the Mark and Deceptive Similarity 158
Context of Use and Strength 159
Descriptive Words and Absence of Protection 160
Descriptiv
Character of Use-Statutory Effect 162
Assessment of Descriptiveness of a Registered Trade Mark at the Interim Injunction Stage 165
Acquisition of Secondary Meaning or Distinctiveness 166
Defense
of Descriptive Character by an Applicant Defendant 168
Surnames and Geographical Names 168
Geographical Connection and Descriptive Character 170
Invented Words 171
Consumer Confusion-The Educ
ted and the Illiterate 172
Pharma Trade Marks 173
Publici Juris 178
Prior User Defence 180
Transborder Reputation 182
Dishonest Adoption 186
Honest and Concurrent User 188
Other H
nest Practices 190
Suppression of Material Facts 190
Suppression not Material 194
Acquiescence, Delay and Laches 195
Delay and Dishonest Adoption 199
Third Party Infringement 202
Non-
se or Abandonment of the Mark 203
Continuing Wrong 204
Balance of Convenience and Relevant Considerations 205
Role of the Appellate Court 207
Infringement-Who Can Sue? 209
Assignee and Mo
e of Assignment 210
Registered User 210
Suit for Infringement-Jurisdiction 211
Composite Suits & Jurisdictional Issues 212
Cause of Action & Applicability to Trade Mark Suits 215
Situs of
the Trade Mark 215
Sales on a Commercial Scale 216
Threat of Trade Mark Infringement 217
Infringement over the Internet 218
Trap Transactions 220
Can not be a Trivial Event 220
Advert
sements 221
Section 134-Additional Jurisdiction in Trade Mark Suits 222
Letters Patent and Section 134 223
Clause 12 of the Letters Patent 223
Clause 14 of Letters Patent 225
Reliefs in a
Suit for Infringement and Passing Off 228
The Requirement of Legal User Certificate 228
Plaint and Draft Prayer 229
Effect of Rectification Proceedings on a Suit for Infringement 230
Anti-Sui
Injunctions and Forum Non Conveniens 232
Domain Name Disputes 233
The Uniform Domain Name Disputes Resolution (UDNDR) Policy 234
Domain Name Protection in India 236
Infringement Action and A
ministrative Panel Proceedings-No Case for Conflict237
The Trade Marks Act & The Torts of Commercial Disparagement and Injurious Falsehood 238
Relevant Provisions in the Trade Marks Act 238
Dispa
agement and Factors for its Assessment 238
Free Speech and the Law against Disparagement 241
Injurious Falsehood 242
False Trade Descriptions under The Trade Marks Act 244
Table 2.1: Descript
ve and Invented Words-Illustrative Instances Including Cases Decided by the Registry 244
Table 2.2: Deceptively Similar Marks-Illustrative Instances 256
Table 2.3: Marks Having ‘No Deceptive Similari
y’-Illustrative Instances 272
Table 2.4: No Deceptive Similarity between Pharma Trade Marks-A Tabular Compilation281
Table 2.5: Deceptive Similarity between Pharma Trade Marks-A Tabular Compilation28
CHAPTER 3
Infringement of Copyright and Injunctive Relief
Introduction 289
‘Copyright’ and the Nature of Exclusivity 290
Issues Involved in Copyright Infringement Cases 290
Copyr
ghtability 291
Statutory Barriers on Copyrightability 291
The Originality Requirement 291
Eastern Book Company v D.B. Modak 292
‘Sweat of the Brow’ Standard 292
The ‘Minimal Creativity’ S
andard 293
The ‘Skill and Judgment’ Test 293
Adoption of the Canadian Approach by the Supreme Court 293
Divergent Standards or Merely a Question of Degree? 295
Implications of Modak Case 296
br>A Broad Standard or Confined to its Facts? 296
Renewed Standard for Artistic Works 296
Renewed Standard for Compilations 297
No Copyright in an Idea 298
Copyrightability of Different Kinds
of Works 300
Abridgment of a Literary Work 300
Text Books and Question Papers 301
Concept Notes 303
Dictionaries and Compilations 303
Copyrightability of Technical Drawings as Artistic Wo
ks 306
Copyright Infringement 307
Test for Determining Infringement 307
The ‘Substantial Reproduction’ Test 307
The Locus Classicus on Substantial Similarity 308
Copyright Infringement of
Dance Forms 311
Copyright Infringement of Musical Works 312
Test for Comparing Musical Works 312
Expert Testimony for Comparison 312
Use of Sound Recording 313
Will the Delhi and Bombay H
gh Court Judgments Survive the Copyright (Amendment) Act, 2012? 317
Is There a Positive Right to Receive Royalties under the Copyright Amendment Act, 2012? 319
Copyright Infringement of Artistic Work
322
Copyright Infringement and Design Protection 324
Product Labels and Mechanical Process-Scope of Copyright Protection326
Technical Drawings 327
Copyright Infringement and Cinematograph Fi
ms 328
Copyright Infringement of Future Cinematograph Films 329
Copyright Infringement and Foreign Works 330
Cable Television Networks and Liability for Copyright Infringement 330
The ‘Fair U
e’ Exception in Copyright Law 331
Principles of Fair Use Defense 331
Is Section 52 a Complete Code? 334
Time Limits and Fair Dealing 334
The De Minimis Principle: Part of Fair Use or a Standa
one Defense? 335
Principles of Fair Use Summarised 337
Critique of a Copyrighted Work-Scope of Fair Use Exception 338
Reference Books and Fair Dealing 338
Defense of Custom or Usage in Relati
n to Guide Books 339
Liberal View on Guidebooks 339
Is Section 52(1)(a) Applicable to Cinematograph Films and Sound Recordings? 340
Musical Works and Fair Dealing 341
Version Recordings 342 <
r>Owner’s Prior Consent 342
Limitations on Use as Part of Cinematograph Film 342
Permissibility of Changes to the Version 343
Limited Exception Against Secondary Infringement-Section 52(1)(k) 345
Fair Dealing and Articles on Current Political, Social, or Economic Topics 346
Background Works-Section 52(1)(u) 346
Communication for Religious Purposes-Section 52(1)(za) 347
Changes to the
air Use Exceptions by the Copyright (Amendment) Act, 2012 348
Compulsory Licenses as a Defense to Infringement 350
Interim Licenses under Section 31 353
Changes Introduced by the Copyright (Amend
ent) Act, 2012 355
Broadcast Reproduction Rights and Their Interplay with Copyright Protection 355
Moral Rights 356
The Right to Receive Mention in the Credits 359
Principle Extended to Singe
s 360
Performers’ Rights and the Impact of the Copyright (Amendment) Act, 2012 360
Who can Sue? 362
Owners of Copyright 362
Joint and Separate Owners 362
First Owner of a Copyright-Sectio
17 365
Burden of proof 366
‘Contract to the Contrary ’-Heightened Standard of Proof 368
Ownership of Musical Works 369
‘Contract to the Contrary’ Clause in Musical Works 370
Bar Council
f India Rules and Section 17 371
Government Works and Ownership 371
Ownership of Works for a Public Undertaking 372
Rights of the Assignee 373
Assignment of Copyright 373
Assignment and T
rms of Payment 376
Assignment and Charge-Fine Distinction 377
Equitable Assignment 379
A Locus Classicus by the Madras High Court 380
Doubts Cast on the Possibility of an Equitable Assignment
380
Effect of the Assignment of Rights to any Future Mode of Exploitation and Impact of the Copyright (Amendment) Act, 2012 382
Exposure of the End-user to Infringement Action under the Copyright (Am
ndment) Act, 2012, Pursuant to Newly Introduced Restrictions on Assignment 384
Licensee’s Right to Sue 389
Assignment or License-Tests and Guidelines 389
Absence of ‘Reversion of Rights’ Clause-A
Material Factor 391
Licensee’s Suit-Applicability of Section 61 393
Effect of not Impleading the Owner-Section 61 394
‘License’ Needed for an Exclusive Licensee to Sue 395
Exclusive Licensee’
Suit Against Infringement by the Copyright Owner 396
Exclusive License of Future Works 396
Term Sheet Agreements and Licenses 399
Section 61 and Broadcasting Organizations 399
Section 39A an
the Copyright (Amendment) Act, 2012 400
Who may be Sued? 401
Secondary Infringement 401
Applicability of the Exhaustion Principle 402
‘Parallel Imports’ Defined 402
The Santosh V.G. Deci
ion 403
Parallel Imports of Books and Exhaustion 404
Section 14 - Subsequent Amendment but Similar Views 405
Are Parallel Exports Prohibited? 406
Secondary Infringement-Confined to Section 51
407
The Betamax Case 408
The Grokster Case-Curbs on File-sharing 409
Relevance in the Indian Context 410
The MySpace Litigation and Emerging Trends 410
‘Authorisation’ and Primary Infrin
ement Held to be Absent 410
Impact of the MySpace Decision on Secondary Infringement 411
Safe Harbour Provisions under the Information Technology Act, 2000 413
The MySpace Outcome and the Copyrig
t (Amendment) Act, 2012 414
John Doe Orders-Suing Unknown Infringers 415
The Metallica Order 416
John Doe Orders in India 417
Final and Interim John Doe Orders 418
John Doe Orders-Procedu
e and Guidelines 419
Website Blocking Orders 420
Suits For Injunction-Issues on Maintainability 421
Pendency of an Application for Grant of Compulsory License 421
Remedies under the TRAI Act
22
Adjudication of Disputes Relating to Assignment of Copyright 424
Registration of Copyright 426
Suit for Injunction Against Groundless Attacks 429
Where to Sue? 430
Interplay between Se
tion 20 of the CPC and Section 62 of the Copyright Act 431
Remedies for Infringement of Copyright 433
Damages as a Suitable Relief 434
Exemplary Damages in Intellectual Property Law 434
Damag
s and Rendition of Accounts-Distinguished 435
Maintaining Accounts-An Alternative to Injunctive Relief 437
Anton Piller Orders 438
Code of Civil Procedure and Anton Piller Orders 439
Delivery
Up Orders 442
Draft Prayer 443
CHAPTER 4
Infringement of Patents and Injunctive Relief
Introduction 449
Issues Involved in Patent Infringement Cases 449
Registration of Patents 4
0
Is Registration Mandatory for Patent Protection? 450
Registration-Procedural Aspects 450
Publication and Examination 452
Grant of Patents and Rights of Patentee 453
When can a Patent be
Said to be Granted? 454
Opposition Proceedings-Section 25 454
‘Person Interested’ Defined 455
Right of Hearing in Pre-grant Opposition Proceedings 456
Right of Appeal against Pre-grant Opposi
ions 456
Patentability 457
Introduction 457
Concept of an Invention 458
‘Novelty’, ‘New Invention’ and ‘Anticipation’ 459
‘New Invention’ defined461
Anticipation not resulting in Inva
idity463
Assessment of Anticipation464
Enabling Disclosure467
‘Mosaicing’ of Prior Publications469
Prior Use and Enabling Disclosure470
Common General Knowledge471
Lack of Inventive S
ep and Non-obviousness 472
Principles governing Obviousness474
Non-Obviousness and Combination of Known Integers476
Selection Patents478
Obvious Claims and Revocation481
‘Obvious to Try’
nd Commercial Consequences483
Relevance of Commercial Consequences486
Different Routes and Different Purposes488
Obviousness and the Benefit of Hindsight489
Person Skilled in the Art490
I
ter-relationship between Obviousness, Prior Art and the Common General Knowledge 492
Common General Knowledge-Relevant Principles 493
Assessing the Impact of Prior Art 494
Guidelines on Inventive
Step in the Manual of Patent Practice and Procedure495
Utility and ‘Capable of Industrial Application’ 496
Insufficiency of Claims 498
Types of Insufficiency 500
Insufficiency and Enabling Di
closure 502
The Gillette Defence 504
International Preliminary Examination Report and Written Opinion-Impact on Patentability 507
Impact of Non-disclosure of Foreign Patent Applications 508
S
atutory Exceptions to Patentability-Section 3 509
Exclusions for Patentability Inventions-Section 3(b)510
Exclusions Based on Discovery-Section 3(c) 512
Non-patentability Disqualifications-Sectio
3(d) 514
Properties of Components Making Substances Unpatentable-Section 3(e) 519
Limits of Patentability of an Invention-Section 3(f) 520
Bar on Patentability-Section 3(j) 521
Software Pate
tability 521
Software Patentability in the European Union526
Software Patentability in the United Kingdom528
Software Patentability and Section 3(k)529
Section 3(k) and Business Methods531 Protection of Traditional Knowledge-Section 3(p) 534
Construction of Claims 534
Introduction 534
Importance of Claim Construction 535
Is Alleged Infringement Relevant in Claim Construction?
36
Construction of Multiple Claims 537
The Doctrine of Purposive Construction-The Bedrock of Claim Construction 537
The Improver Case 539
Principles Laid Down in Kirin-Amgen Case 542
Clai
Construction-A Judicial Function 544
Expert Witnesses and Claim Construction 545
Notional Skilled Addressee 547
Broad Claims and a Team of Skilled Persons 547
Prejudices Come Along with Skil
548
Prosecution History and Claim Construction 549
File Wrapper Estoppel 550
Prosecution History in the United Kingdom 551
Infringing Acts 555
Statutory Exceptions to Infringement-Govern
ent Use 556
Other Statutory Exceptions 558
Acts that do not Constitute Infringement 559
Defensive Action by a Third Party 560
Process Patents and Infringement 561
Reliefs Against Infringe
ent-Injunctions 563
Injunctions 564
Credible Challenges to a Patent 564
Presumption of Validity of Patents 564
‘Recentness’ of Patents-An Unnecessary Controversy 566
Balance of Convenienc
570
The ‘Public Interest Factor’ in Interim Injunctions 573
Complicated Questions of Fact 576
Comity of Courts 578
Effect of Patent not being Commercially Exploited in India 579
General
rinciples Applicable to Working of Patented Inventions 581
Conduct of the Defendant 581
Suppression of Material Facts 583
Protection of Partially Valid Specifications 586
Who may Sue for Infr
ngement 586
Jurisdiction in Infringement Suits 589
Counter-Claim for Revocation 589
Pendency of Revocation Petition and Maintainability of Counter-claim 591
Draft Prayer 592
Alternatives
o a Suit for Patent Infringement 592
Patent Linkage 593
Intellectual Property Rights (Imported Goods) Enforcement Rules, 2007 595
CHAPTER 5
Design Piracy and Injunctive Relief
Scope a
d Object of The Designs Act, 2000 599
Definition and Scope of ‘Design’ 599
‘Design’ Defined 599
Scope of Definition of ‘Design’ 600
What is an ‘Article’? 602
Application of Design to a Sp
cific Article 602
The Doctrine of Functionality 603
Registrability of Designs 604
Prerequisites for Registration of Designs 604
Novelty and Originality 604
Prior Publication 607
Is Re
istration Abroad a Ground for Cancellation? 608
Overbreadth of Registration 611
Passing off and Design Registration 612
Contrary View in Certain Cases 613
Piracy of Registered Designs 614
Tests Relating to Piracy of Registered Designs 615
Distinction from the Test of Deceptive Similarity 616
Test of Substantial Differences 616
Whose Eye is the Refer
nce Point of Judgment? 617
Liability for Piracy of Registered Design and Jurisdiction 617
Injunctions in Design Piracy Cases 618
Validity of Plaintiff’s Design and Other Governing Considerations
18
Relevance of Metro Plastic Industries to Designs Registered under the 1911 Act 620
Defence of Subsequent Design Registration by the Defendant 620
Draft Prayer and Jurisdiction 624
CHAP
ER 6
Common Law Rights and Injunctive Relief
Breach of Confidence 627
The Traditional Approach and the “Springboard” Doctrine 630
The ‘Public Domain’ Exception 631
Assessment of Confident
ality of Information by Courts 632
Breach of Confidence and Copyright Infringement- Distinction Explained 634
Confidential Information and Patentability 635
Trade Secret Protection 635
The Ch
racter of a ‘Trade Secret’ 635
Passing Off of Copyrighted Work 637
Character Merchandising and Publicity/ Personality Rights 638
APPENDIX
1Trade Marks Act, 1999641
2The Trade Marks R
les, 2002683
3The Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999790
4The Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Rules, 2002810
5The Copyright A
t, 1957856
6The Copyright Rules, 1958893
7The Patents Act, 1970913
8The Patents Rules, 2003976
9The Designs Act, 20001026
10The Designs Rules, 20011038
Subject Index1075
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