The Renovation of International Law: On the Basis of a Juridical Community of Mankind

I have written my work during THE WAR. The idea of acoJ1ectivity of the States is interwoven allthrough my work, but, of course, the pro- ject of a League of nations, which has been elaborated during the armi- stice, could not be taken into consideration. This is, moreover, a subject- matter which can only be dealt with, in an experimental way, in future times. Besides, I dare say that my work does not fall short with regard to the plans of the day; so far as the juridical community of mankind is concerned, it is even ahead of its time. MARCH, 1919. JITTA. CONTENTS CHAPTER I. OBJECT AND SCHEME OF THE WORK. page My object. Mankind as a community de facto. Mankind as a juridical community. The unity of international law. Scheme of the system. The positive rules of the law of war. The egotism of the States. The burden of the subject-matter. The causticity of some of the materials. The use of a language. CHAPTER II. THE SYSTEM. FIRST PART. Public International Law. First Section. THE GENERAL DIRECTION OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS. I. The Sovereignty of the State and the Sovereignty of Mankind. 7 The sovereignty of the State. The qualifications to be given to the sovereignty of the State according to reasonable principles. The qualifications of the sovereignty in positive law. The religious and patriotic impediments of the evolution of positive law, as to so- vereignty.

I. Object and Scheme of the Work..- My object.- Mankind as a community de facto.- Mankind as a juridical community.- The unity of international law.- Scheme of the system.- The positive rules of the law of war.- The egotism of the States.- The burden of the subject-matter.- The causticity of some of the materials.- The use of a language.- II. The System.- First Part Public International Law.- First Section. The General Direction of Public Affairs.- 1. The Sovereignty of the State and the Sovereignty of Mankind.- The sovereignty of the State.- The qualifications to be given to the sovereignty of the State according to reasonable principles.- The qualifications of the sovereignty in positive law.- The religious and patriotic impediments of the evolution of positive law, as to sovereignty.- 2. The juridical Limits of the Sovereignty of the State.- The principle.- The State and the individuals.- The State and mankind.- The State and the other States.- 3. The territorial Limits of the Sovereignty of the State.- Preliminary remark as to the relation between the territorial and the personal limits.- Is it possible reasonably to trace the territorial limits of the States?.- How have the present frontiers been formed?.- May an evolution be expected?.- The juridical effects of modifications of the political frontiers.- Various expressions, connected with "territory" and used in the language of international jurisprudence.- 4. The personal Limits of the Sovereignty of the State.- Why do I consider "nationality" as the main point here?.- Nationality according to reasonable principles.- Nationality in positive laws.- Difficulties arising in practice.- Are the germs of an evolution perceptible?.- 5. Political Limits of the Sovereignty of the State.- Preliminary remark.- Federations, the members of which retain a limited sovereignty.- Colonial empires.- Protectorates, suzerainties spheres of influence, etc.- Perpetual neutrality, guaranteed or not guaranteed.- The international position of the Holy See.- 6. National Offices with an international Task.- Explanation of the denomination.- Sovereigns and other heads of States.- Diplomatic envoys.- Consuls.- 7. The general Direction of public Affairs of Mankind.- The principle.- The positive law.- May the germs of an evolution be ascertained?.- Second Section. The Sources of Intenrational Law.- 8. National and International Sources of International Law.- Are there national sources of international law?.- The sources of positive rules of international law.- The limited and modest influence of the reasonable principles.- 9. Unwritten Law or Custom.- Custom as a source of juridical rules.- The acts of private individuals as a source of international law.- Local customs and general or universal customs.- Custom is a source of public international law as well as of private international law.- How is the existence of a custom to be ascertained in international social life?.- International-common law.- The evolution of customary international law.- 10. Written Law.- National laws.- The international statute-law and its substitutes.- The first substitute : uniform national laws.- The second substitute : law-making treaties.- A parallel between the two substitutes.- The evolution of the two substitutes.- Third Section. Goods Destined, Although Only in General, for the Common Use of Mankind.- 11. The Earth.- The principle.- The positive law.- Can an evolution be expected ?.- 12. The waters.- The liquid surface of the globe.- The law of the high seas.- The other aquatic surfaces.- 13. The Atmosphere.- What may be the reasonable principle here ?.- The beginning of a uniform atmospheric law and its future evolution.- Fourth Section. Taxation.- 14. General Views as to international fiscal Law.- The question as it ought to be put.- Reasonable principles.- The national treasury in positive laws.- Are there any germs of an evolution? Matters to be submitted to a further investigation.- 15. Wealth, Income, and the specific Elements of both.- Preliminary remarks.- Is a reasonable principle to be established ?.- The positive fiscal law and its evolution.- 16. Excises, Import and Export Duties on Commodites.- Their international side.- Protective duties, according to the reasonable principles.- Protectionism in the positive laws.- Progress or regression ?.- 17. Wealth, appearing irregularly.- Preliminary remark.- Succession duty.- The stamp-duty on bills of exhange.- 18. Rewards for administrative Services.- General remarks.- The international side of some remunerations and the principles applying to this side.- The positive law and its evolution.- Fifth Section. Public Welfare as a Matter of Offical Care.- 19. General Views.- Individuals and Society.- States and mankind.- Some special matters to be discussed.- 20. Education.- The State and the education of the youth.- Patriotic education.- The language.- History.- Religion.- The education of foreign residents.- 21. Labour.- Labour in general, as a matter of official care.- National labour and protectionism.- International agreements concerning labour.- International associations of labourers and of employers.- Political parties aiming at the radical reformation or even at the destruction of the actual state of Society.- 22. The principal Branches of human Activity.- General principles.- Agriculture.- Industry.- Trade.- Science.- Arts.- 23. International Means of Communication.- General remarks.- The international agreements.- Sixth Section. Prevention of Social Evil.- 24. General Views.- Preliminary observations.- Preventive police of the State.- Preventive police of unions of States.- Preventive general or universal police.- 25. Population.- Individuals and Society.- Number.- Quality.- The social struggle against degeneration.- 26. Emigration and Immigration.- The principle of the free circulation of individuals.- Emigration, considered as the right to leave.- The protection of emigrants in transitu.- Immigration as a right to enter and to settle in a foreign State.- Expulsion.- 27. Material Dangers.- Preliminary remark.- Diseases of the human species.- The animal Kingdom.- Diseases and parasites of the vegetable Kingdom.- Noxious elements.- 28. Moral Dangers.- Preliminary remarks.- Prostitution as a social evil.- The professional appendices of prostitution.- Seventh Section. Punishment.- 29. Criminal Law as a Part of international Science.- Preliminary historical remarks.- The limits to the right of punishment.- The person of the offender as an object of scientific investigations.- The penalties.- 30. The repressive Power of the State, acting in Isolation.- Preliminary remark.- The field of application of the national criminal laws.- The official preparation of the case and the criminal procedure.- The legal effects of a foreign criminal sentence.- 31. The co-ordinate Action of several States.- General remarks.- Extradition.- Eigth Section. Jurisdiction.- 32. General remarks.- The conception of the term "jurisdiction".- Jurisdiction and territorial limits of the application of a national law.- Jurisdiction and execution of foreign judgments.- Jurisdiction and competency.- Positive law.- 33. Jurisdiction in administrative Matters.- Contests belonging to the sphere of local administration.- Contests belonging to the sphere of international administration.- Contests relating to the question whether another contest is a local or an international one.- 34. Jurisdiction in criminal Matters.- Principle.- Application of the principle and its extension.- Restrictions of the national jurisdiction.- 35. Jurisdiction in civil Matters.- Principles.- The general lines of the national positive laws.- The extension of the national jurisdiction in the positive national laws.- The restrictions to be found in positive law.- Evolution.- Ninth Section. Arbiration and Judiciary.- 36. Is international Judiciary only a Dream?.- The hypothesis of an international judiciary.- Are there any traces of the beginning of an evolution ? The best method to be followed for a discussion of the international arbitration.- 37. The international Sides of Arbitration between contesting Individuals.- Principle.- The international nature of the contest.- The fixation of the law in the contested matter, by the arbitral award.- The eventual enforcement of the arbitral award.- 38. Arbitration between States.- Preliminary remark.- The nature of the contests.- The agreement.- The organization of the arbitral court.- The international enforcement.- The final aim.- Second Part of the System. Private international law.- Tenth Section. Juridical Relations in Private International Law.- 39. General Views.- Juridical relations.- The juridical relation in the antique doctrine, called the doctrine of the "Statutes".- The juridical relation in the doctrines of later jurists.- The juridical relation in my system.- Division of the subject-matter.- 40. Subjects of juridical Relations.- Delineation and division.- Natural persons as subjects of juridical relations.- Corporations or juridical persons.- 41. The Substance-matter of juridical Relations.- Analysis of the conception and general lines of a division.- Absolute personal rights.- Relative personal rights.- Absolute patrimonial rights.- Relative patrimonial rights.- 42. The Formation of juridical Relations.- General thoughts.- Juridical facts.- Juridical acts.- Juridical agreements or contracts.- 43. The Dissolution of juridical Relations.- General views.- Legal limitation of actions.- Eleventh Section. The Law of Persons.- 44. Juridical Links between a Person and the Territory of a State.- General remark.- Nationality.- Domicile.- Simple abode or stay.- Participation in the local life, without even residence or stay.- The links between a corporation and a State.- 45. Status and Capacity of natural Persons.- Preliminary remarks.- Absolutely and relatively reasonable principles.- The spirit of the positive laws.- The germs of an evolution.- 46. The juridical Status of Corporations, in private international Law.- The various points of juridical contact and the reasonable principles.- Positive law and its evolution.- Twelfth Section. Family Law.- 47. General Views.- The conception of family law.- A glance at history.- Division of the subject-matter.- 48. Solemnization of Marriage.- The conditions on a future husband and a future wife.- The solemnization.- Inconsistency, nullity and annulation of a marriage.- The proof of the existence of a marriage.- 49. Juridical Effects of Marriage.- Subdivision.- Personal relations.- The so-called incapacity of the married woman.- Patrimonial relations.- 50. Dissolution of Marriage, especially by Divorce.- Why divorce is to be the centre of my investigations.- Religion and social philosophy.- The general lines of a reasonable solution.- Positive Law and practice.- The compromise, inserted in th Hague treaty, rejating to divorce.- 51. Procreation, Consanguinity and Affinity.- General remarks.- Reasonable principle.- Positive law.- The germs of an evolution are insignificant.- 52. Protection of Infants and Personae miserahiles.- General remarks. The principle. Positive Law. The way of the evolution.- Thirteenth Section. Goods.- 53. Preliminary Remarks.- Fundamental conceptions and qualifications.- The classical question of the law which governs the qualification of a good as immovable or movable.- Division of the matter.- 54. Corporeal immovable Goods.- The antique rule and its alloy.- Positive law.- Some success of the attempts to start an evolution.- Remark about the modifications of the frontiers of a State.- 55. Corporeal movable Goods.- Division of the subject-matter.- Simple corporeal things or commodities.- Vessels, especially sea-going merchant ships.- Papers to bearer.- 56. Incorporeal Goods of an absolute Nature.- Preliminary remarks.- Copyright.- The right of the inventor and patents for inventions.- 57. Incorporeal Goods of a relative Nature.- Preliminary remarks.- Simple claims.- Claims connected with instruments.- Fourteenth Section. Obligations.- 58. General principles.- Preliminary remarks.- International-common rules in the law of obligations.- The doctrine of the sources of the obligations.- The law of the local sphere of social life, governing an obligation.- Application of the localization-principle.- 59. A Review of the principal Species and Contrats.- My classification.- Contracts based on the social value of goods.- Contracts based on the social value of labour.- Contracts based on the social value of credit.- Contracts based on the social value of chance.- Carriage.- Partnerschip.- Insurance.- Other contracts.- 60. Negotiable Instruments, appealing to public Confidence.- Preliminary remarks.- Principles of the international law concerning bills of exchange.- Positive laws and ordinances.- 61. Torts and other prejudicial acts.- Division of the subject-matter.- The personal, imputable and antisocial prejudicial act.- The other cases.- 62. Other Sources of Obligations.- Preliminary remark.- Payment without a legal duty to pay.- Service rendered without legal duty.- Communities of interlaced interests.- Fifteenth Section. The Influence of Trade on the Evolution of Private International Law.- 63. The broad an the narrow Sense of commercial Law.- The broad sense.- The narrow sense.- 64. Commercial Law in its broad Sense.- The evolution, tending to international unification.- Is an international commercial code desirable ?.- Relations between branches of trade and the public powers.- 65. Commercial Law in its narrow Sense.- Synopsis of the international side of the matter.- The qualification of a man as a trader or of an association as a commercial one.- The qualification of a juridical relation as a commercial one.- Expectations for the future.- Sixteenth Section. Succession.- 66. General Views.- Philosophy of the law of successions.- The main questions in the old doctrine of the conflicts of laws.- Succession to immovables.- Nationality or domicile? Privilegia odiosa of aliens.- Indication of some special points, to be discussed in the two following paragraphs.- 67. Indication of the Successors.- Succession ab intestato.- The State as an eventual successor ab intestato.- Form of the last-wills.- Construction of wills.- The absolute capacity to make a will.- The absolute capacity to inherit Relative incapacities.- Limitation of the part of the estate to be disposed of.- Hereditatis petitio.- Accepting and repudiating of the quality of successor.- The acquisition of rights on the separate goods, included in the estate.- 68. Adjustment of the Estate of the Deceased.- Successors and creditors of the estate.- Executors and trustees.- Juridical relations between coheirs.- Seventeenth Section. Civil Procedure.- 69. Questionable Points in the International law of civil Procedure.- Jurisdiction.- The antique distinction between "institutoria litis" and "decisoria litis". Notice to absent defendants.- Aliens as plaintiffs or defendants in national Courts.- The right of being a party in a law-suit, "persona or jus standi in judicio." In what manner a party has to appear "modus standi in judicio". The limitation.- 70. Evidence and its Production.- Evidence as to foreign law.- Evidence as to facts.- Commissions to foreign courts for the taking of evidence.- 71. Foreign judgments and Arbitral Awards.- Preliminary remark.- The various legal consequences of a foreign judgment.- The reasonable principle.- Positive laws and practice.- International treaties.- The evolution.- Foreign arbitral awards.- Eighteenth Section. Bankrupty.- 72. General Remarks.- Bankcruptcy and civil procedure.- Bankruptcy and commercial law.- Bankruptcy and criminal law.- Juridical institutions similar to bankruptcy or connected with it.- 73. The reasonable Principles of the international Bankrupty Law.- Synopsis of the theories in vogue.- The "unity-universality" theory.- "The plurality-territoriality" theory.- The reasonable principle.- General observations as to the application of the reasonable principle in the positive laws.- 74. The positive Laws and their Evolution.- Questions of international law, arising in the interior, and connected with an inland bankruptcy.- Questions of international law, likewise arising in the interior, but connected with a foreign adjudication.- Arrangements between the bankrupt and his creditors.- International treaties relating to bankruptcies and to arrangements.- III. A Few Considerations on the Positive Law of War.- The positive nature of the law of war.- The dogma of the righteous causes of war.- The causes of the development of customary rules, concerning warfare.- The first customary rule: "Not all means/to injure a foe are allowed".- The secund customary rule: "Private individuals ought as a rule, but as a rule with exceptions, to be exempted from warlike harm.".- The third customary rule : "Neutrals have rights and duties.".- Consequence of the lack of precision of the customary rules.- The codification of the law of war.- A short digression to the domain of feelings.- The principle of the nationalities.- The national feeling inflated to passion.- The races of men.- The religious feeling and the religions.- Social-political parties.- Synopsis of the principal causes of war, connected with the realm of feelings.- The reduction of the number of wars.- Huma-nization of the war.- Disappearance of the war.- IV. Synopsis of My Conclusions.- A glance back at my starting point.- The aim of my work.- My method.- My results.- National selfishness.- The war.- Corrigendum: Page 44, lines 19 and 25, for 14 read 15.